September 11, 2001, marked the epoch of worldwide terrorist attack. Terrorists rammed two jets into the world trade center in New York, and third jet into Pentagon 3000 people were killed in the incident. The incident was followed by many terrorist attacks all over the world. In 2008, Mumbai become victim of terrorist attack, in which hundreds of civilian lost their lives. Furthermore, in 2005 London transit system was bombed by terrorists, which killed 50 people and injured 700 people. In spite of the devastating and catastrophic impact of terrorism. In sociology we study it as a “social construction”. Which mean, different societies or groups perceive terrorism differently. Some countries think of terrorist attacks as “terrorism” but, others may think of it, as “War of freedom” or, “holy War”. One group’s “terrorists” might be “freedom fighters” for other group. For instance, 1857, armed conflict between British (East India Company) and Indians, has been labeled differently in history books. Pakistan and Indian history books, refer to the conflict as “War of independence”. On the other hand, British history books refer to it as “mutiny” or “Sepoy rebellion”.

According to conflict theorists, groups or societies which have power and control over the resources exploit other groups, for their own benefit. People awareness regarding vast inequalities among nation’s leads to, creation of violent class. Inequalities could become a cause of armed conflict between two groups or societies. History has witnessed powerful states intervention in the affairs of smaller and weaker countries. Either to promote their political agenda or, to seek more resources. In early ages, powerful empires extended their dominions, by occupying smaller and weaker kingdoms through military force.

In 1600, British came to India, under the umbrella of east India Company, as traders. For centuries they conducted their business peacefully in India. Though, in 19th century Indians engaged in armed conflict with British. Because British started intervening in India political affairs. Few among many reasons of conflict are as follow; firstly, British initiated overthrowing small kingdoms of India via, military force. Secondly, they started to interfere in Hindu rituals. Thirdly, Indian soldiers were paid less, compare to British soldiers. Lastly, Indian soldiers were forced to use grease cartridge, made-up of pig and cow fat; cow is considered sacred animal, by Hindus; on the other hand, pig is forbidden in Islam. Therefore, Indians were compelled to declare war against British, under the leadership of last Mughal emperor Bahadur shah Zafer, in 1857. British succeeded in suppressing the rebellion, and established its rule in India. Yet, the conflict resulted in many casualties on both sides. Uneven distribution of resources among states may lead to violence and domination of powerful states over weaker countries. Furthermore, exploitation of smaller and weaker countries could give birth to violence and violent groups.

Second World War came to an end in 1945, two states (USA and USSR) emerged as world superpowers. From 1947 to 1991 both superpowers struggled for supremacy via proxy war (cold war). Cold war was not a direct armed conflict between USA and USSR. However, it was a wedged on economic, political and propaganda front. Afghanistan was among many countries which suffered from cold war. From 1960 both superpowers supported different political organization in Afghanistan. Leftist regime would be overthrown by rightest regime and vice versa till 1979. In 1979 Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan via, military force. In retaliation USA supported fundamentalist groups in Afghanistan, to fight against USSR. The fundamentalist was known as mujahedeen. USA provided weapons and economic support to mujahedeen. America carried out their supremacy struggle via, exploiting the religious sentiments of fundamentalist groups in Afghanistan. USSR was defeated by mujahedeen, war was over in 1989. However, the repercussion of war was devastating. Firstly, Afghanistan was left with unstable government. Secondly, civil war between different factions led to further destruction of infrastructure. Lastly, Taliban took over the power. Both superpowers exploited Afghanistan in their struggle for supremacy. A country which was showing great promise of progress was now in ruins. In 2001, Taliban devised attack on world trade center and pentagon. Just after two decades, US backed Mujahedeen emerged as a terrorist organization and attacked USA.

Developed Countries use coercive power on weaker nations, for their political and economic benefit. Which further aid in, increasing the miseries of citizens in smaller countries. Such countries have disorganized social structures. Thus, Citizens do not have access to education and jobs. Moreover, Illiteracy and poverty prevails in developing countries, due to which people become desperate. Desperation lead them to join violent factions and to adopt violent behavior.

For many decades, Afghanistan was in ruins, social structure was disorganized. Due to which, new generation only had the opportunity to study in madrassas. Where fundamentalist thoughts have been infused in them. Therefore, they could not tolerate foreign culture and religion. Customarily, terrorist organization recruit people from madrassas. Powerful countries are still involved in proxy war, in Middle East. Therefore, they still support non-state-agents to further their political and economic agenda. Furthermore, Non-state-agents recruit poor people from south Asian and central Asian countries madrassas. Corruption is common practice in developing countries, political elite and military elite are bought easily by, powerful states. Thus, regimes of developing countries help powerful states, in the production and supply of recruits. For that reason, they keep some regions or provinces underdeveloped and disorganized within the country. In those provinces or regions children only have one option, to study in madrassas. When children socialize in madrassas, they only learn fundamentalist beliefs and values. Which aid terrorist organizations in recruitment process, and for carrying out their devised attacks effortlessly.

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

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Structural Function Perspective

According to structural functional perspective, different parts and aspects of society exist to serve a purpose within a society. Each individual, institution and group has its own roles and objectives, which contribute to the organization of social structure. Therefore, functionalist believe that, social stratification serve a purpose too, for the sustenance of society.

What Are The Functions Of Social Stratification?

Wilbert Moore and Kingsley Davis published; “Davis-Moore thesis” in, 1945. In which they argued, the roles which have greatest functions within a society, should be rewarded highly. According to the thesis, different roles, qualification and skills have different values. Those skills or education; which are valued, play an important role within a society. The person who acquires those skills and education must be valued and should be highly rewarded.

Different professions require different training and education; some of them need less effort compare to others. Education, skills and training which need more efforts and time to learn are highly valued in society. The person whose job requirement is based on these valued professional traits are rewarded highly than others. For instance, doctors are paid more than childcare workers because, for entering in the field of medicine require high intelligence. The education and training which is required for the profession, need more efforts and time. In order to motivate people to become doctors; they should be highly rewarded. On the other hand, skills which are required to become childcare worker; does not need that much effort to learn. Many people can enter into the profession because it is easy; it does not need much skills and education. Therefore, doctors are paid more than childcare workers.

Conflict Perspective

Conflict theorist view differ from functionalists; they think stratification do not fulfil any need and function of society. However, inequality is the product of class conflict.

According to Karl Marx inequality exist in society due to the private ownership of property. People who owns means of production; they exploit workers for profit maximization. Workers do not have any means to earn their livelihood except to sell their labor. All the efforts which are required for the production are invested by, workers in factories. However, they do not get the fair share of wealth which is earned through those products. Owners of the factories give workers minimum wages in order to maximize their profits. Therefore, conflict theorist believe that, stratification does not benefits the society but it only benefits the rich. Modern conflict theorist believe that, not only the economic sources of power are used to suppress weak but, non-economic sources of power too. Many people in the society are exploited on the basis of gender and race. Most organization pay less to women compare to man for the same job.

Symbolic Interaction Perspective

Interactionists view society from micro level, they use social interaction to define society as whole. This perspective explains how social stratification affect social interaction among people. Mostly people interact with those who share similar social class within a society. Because people who belong to similar social class, have same income level, similar jobs, education, taste in food and clothing. They associate with one another on many levels. These associations bring people and groups together within a society. The social status of people are reflected through their appearance i.e. clothing, transportation, hairstyle and accessories.

Written by; Khudhdil Khan Kasi

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Upward Mobility

Upward mobility refer to, when an individual improve their social status and class and work their way from the bottom to the top of social ladder. Upward mobility is not only confined to economic prosperity, other factor are involved too in upward mobility such as, education, occupation, skills and matrimonial confederation. Stephen king belonged to a humble background, he work as a janitor before his publication work. He changed his social class and status and moved upward from the bottom of social class ladder. There are many who worked their way up from bottom such as Jenifer Lopez, Michael Jordon and Oprah Winfrey.

Downward Mobility

Some people in the society move at the bottom of social class ladder. When the financial condition, health or business of individual deteriorate they may move from top to bottom on social class ladder. There can be a lot more reasons for moving downward from top on social hierarchy. One may experience downward mobility because of loss in business, or quitting education or job, or may be because of breakup or divorce.

Intergenerational Mobility

An individual who belong to upper class his parents may be middle class and his grandparents may be lower-class. The difference between the social classes of generation and generational change in social status and class is known as intergeneration mobility.

Intergenerational Mobility

The difference between the social classes of same generation members is known as intergenerational mobility. An individual belonging to upper class does not mean that, his siblings belong to same class or possess same social status.

Structural Mobility

Structural change refer to the social change, which enable the whole group to move upward or downward on social class ladder. Industrial revolution in west brought economic prosperity in the society families moved upward from the bottom of social class hierarchy. Their life style, status and class improved because of this development. However, when recession hit the region many people lost their jobs and businesses which deteriorated the economic and living condition of people. Many well-off family moved from top to bottom on social class hierarchy.

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The factors which determine stratification differ in dissimilar societies. In some society the wealth is considered as a benchmark for stratification. Those who have more economic resources which include salary, dividends, capital etc. are at the top tier of social hierarchy. In some society wiser people are given more consideration compare to the rich, in such societies stratification is done on the basis of prestige. Therefore, cultural norms of the society plays vital role in social stratification. Sociologist have distinguished two types of social stratification, which are as follow, close systems and open systems.

Closed System

Closed system is the social settings in which an individual is not able to change his status and move to the other tier of social hierarchy. Cast system is the best example of closed system, in India roles of an individuals are decided on the basis of cast. Most working class people belong to the untouchables and their status do not change because they marry with in their cast. Moreover, they do not have resources to change their current status and move to the other layer of social hierarchy. Even if somehow they manage to become economically prosper, they will still be considered as inferior. Some casts are considered inferior and some are considered superior in India.

Open System

Open system is the social setting in which an individual is able to change his social status and move to the other level of social hierarchy. Class system is the good example of open system. In class system people are allowed to change their social status by receiving high level of education and white color job. People are free to marry anyone they like. For example on 29 April 2011, prince William got married with a commoner named Catharine. In England the commoner are at bottom of social hierarchy and duke is at the top. Which means that Catharine moved from the bottom of social class ladder to the top by marrying duke of England.            

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