Globalization and World Systems Theory: Navigating the Complexities of Interconnected Societies

Globalization, a phenomenon characterized by the increased interconnectedness of societies, economies, and cultures, has transformed the way we perceive and interact with the world. Central to the study of globalization is the World Systems Theory, an influential framework that offers insights into the dynamics of global relationships, economic structures, and the distribution of power. Through the lens of this theory, we can better comprehend the intricate webs of influence and interdependence that shape the modern world.

Understanding Globalization

Globalization is a multifaceted process that encompasses the integration of economies, the exchange of information and ideas, the spread of technology, and the blurring of cultural boundaries. This phenomenon has been facilitated by advancements in communication, transportation, and international trade, resulting in a world where distances are traversed with ease and borders are no longer insurmountable barriers.

Key Aspects of World Systems Theory

Core, Periphery, and Semi-Periphery

World Systems Theory categorizes countries into three tiers based on their economic roles. The core countries, typically highly industrialized and economically dominant, extract resources and exploit labor from periphery countries, often characterized by weaker economies. Semi-periphery countries occupy an intermediate position, serving as a buffer between the core and periphery.

Dependency and Unequal Exchange

The theory highlights the concept of dependency, where periphery countries rely on core countries for investment, technology, and markets, perpetuating an unequal exchange that favors the core. This relationship can lead to economic imbalances and hinder the development of periphery nations.

Global Capitalism

World Systems Theory identifies global capitalism as a driving force behind the modern world system. Capitalist economies operate on a global scale, with multinational corporations exerting significant influence over production, distribution, and consumption patterns.

Structural Inequality

The theory underscores the structural inequalities embedded in the global system. Core nations often dictate economic policies, trade agreements, and cultural norms, influencing the trajectory of periphery countries and shaping their development.

Cultural Homogenization and Resistance

Globalization has led to the spread of cultural products and ideas, sometimes resulting in cultural homogenization. However, this process also sparks resistance as societies strive to preserve their unique identities and traditions.
Impacts of Globalization and World Systems Theory

Economic Disparities

Globalization has both facilitated economic growth and exacerbated inequalities. Core countries benefit from access to resources and markets, while periphery nations often grapple with exploitation and limited economic opportunities.

Labor Migration

Globalization has spurred labor migration, as individuals seek employment opportunities in more developed countries. This movement of people has social, cultural, and economic implications for both sending and receiving nations.

Environmental Concerns

The globalized economy has contributed to environmental challenges, including resource depletion and climate change. The exploitation of natural resources often occurs in periphery countries, leading to ecological degradation.

Cultural Hybridization

While globalization has led to cultural homogenization in some aspects, it has also resulted in the blending of cultures and the emergence of hybrid identities that incorporate local and global elements.

Social Activism and Transnational Movements

Globalization has facilitated transnational social movements, allowing activists to collaborate across borders to address issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and social justice.

Conclusion

Globalization, as viewed through the lens of World Systems Theory, offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of our interconnected world. The theory sheds light on the power dynamics, economic disparities, and cultural exchanges that shape the global landscape. While globalization has undoubtedly brought about unprecedented opportunities, it has also magnified existing inequalities and prompted the need for critical examination and thoughtful policies that promote a more equitable and sustainable global order.

By Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Globalization and World Systems Theory appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Globalization and Social Change: Understanding the Dynamics in Sociology

Globalization is a multifaceted and transformative process that has profoundly influenced societies worldwide. It involves the integration of economies, cultures, and societies on a global scale through increased communication, trade, and technological advancements. In sociology, the study of globalization and social change explores how these interconnected processes shape social structures, behaviors, and identities. This article delves into the significance of globalization in sociology, examines its impact on social change, and provides examples to illustrate its far-reaching effects.

The Dimensions of Globalization:

Globalization encompasses economic, cultural, political, and technological dimensions, each contributing to the interconnectedness of societies around the world.

Examples:

•  Economic Globalization: Economic globalization refers to the integration of national economies through trade, investment, and the flow of capital. Multinational corporations play a central role in this process, as they operate across borders, transcending national boundaries.
• Cultural Globalization: Cultural globalization involves the diffusion of cultural practices, values, and symbols across borders. Popular culture, such as music, films, and fashion, spreads globally, contributing to a shared global culture.

Globalization and Social Change:

Globalization is a significant driver of social change, transforming various aspects of society, including economic systems, cultural identities, and social institutions.

Examples:

• Economic Restructuring: Globalization has led to the restructuring of economies, with a shift from manufacturing-based industries to service-oriented and knowledge-based sectors. This transformation has implications for job opportunities and labor markets.
• Transnational Migration: Globalization has facilitated transnational migration, as people move across borders in search of better economic opportunities and improved living conditions. This migration has led to the formation of multicultural societies and challenges in integration.

Social Movements and Activism:

Globalization has facilitated transnational social movements and activism, allowing people to connect and advocate for social change on a global scale.

Examples:

•  Environmental Activism: Globalization has enabled environmental activists to collaborate and mobilize across borders to address issues like climate change and deforestation. International agreements and conferences facilitate collective efforts in tackling global environmental challenges.
•  Human Rights Advocacy: Globalization has provided a platform for human rights activists to raise awareness about violations and advocate for justice. Social media and digital communication have played a vital role in amplifying their voices.

Identity and Cultural Hybridization:

Globalization has sparked debates about cultural homogenization versus hybridization, as cultures adapt and fuse with external influences.

Examples:

• Global Cuisine: The global spread of food chains and restaurants has led to the fusion of culinary traditions, creating unique global cuisines that blend flavors from different cultures.
• Language and Communication: Globalization has resulted in the widespread use of English as a lingua franca for communication, leading to linguistic hybridization and the emergence of global languages.

Global Inequalities and Social Divides:

Globalization has both positive and negative effects on social inequalities, exacerbating some disparities while reducing others.

Examples:

• Economic Disparities: Globalization has led to increased economic inequalities, with certain regions and groups benefiting more from global trade and investment than others.
• Digital Divide: Globalization has widened the digital divide, as some regions and populations have greater access to information and communication technologies than others.

Conclusion:

In sociology, globalization and social change are interconnected processes that shape the dynamics of societies worldwide. Globalization has multifaceted dimensions, including economic, cultural, political, and technological aspects, each contributing to the integration and interconnectedness of societies. The impact of globalization on social change is evident in economic restructuring, transnational migration, cultural hybridization, and the emergence of global social movements. However, globalization also brings about challenges, such as widening economic disparities and exacerbating social divides. Understanding the complexities of globalization in sociology is crucial for critically examining its effects on individuals, communities, and social structures. As globalization continues to evolve, sociologists will continue to explore its implications and work towards fostering inclusive and equitable societies in a globalized world.

By Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Globalization and Social Change appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Culture and Traditions: The Tapestry of Human Identity

Culture and traditions are the threads that weave the fabric of human identity and shape the way societies function and evolve. In a sociological context, culture encompasses the beliefs, customs, values, norms, language, art, and rituals that are shared among members of a particular group. Traditions, on the other hand, are specific practices and behaviors passed down from one generation to another. This article delves into the significance of culture and traditions in sociology, exploring their role in shaping social identities, promoting social cohesion, and providing real-life examples that illustrate their profound influence on human societies.

Understanding Culture and Traditions in Sociology

• Definition: Culture refers to the collective knowledge, beliefs, customs, and behaviors shared by a group of people. Traditions, as a part of culture, are specific practices that are transmitted from one generation to the next.
• Social Identity: Culture plays a crucial role in shaping social identities, as individuals identify themselves based on the cultural groups they belong to, such as nationality, ethnicity, or religion.
• Socialization: Culture and traditions are transmitted through socialization, where individuals learn the values, norms, and customs of their culture from family, peers, and society.
• Dynamic and Adaptive: Culture and traditions are not static; they evolve over time, adapting to changing circumstances and influences from other cultures.

Impact of Culture and Traditions

• Social Cohesion: Culture and traditions foster social cohesion by providing a sense of belonging and shared identity among members of a community or society.
• Norms and Values: Cultural norms and values guide individual behaviors, influencing everything from interpersonal interactions to societal structures and institutions.
• Identity Expression: Culture and traditions serve as a means for individuals to express their identities, values, and beliefs, strengthening their cultural ties.
• Cultural Exchange: Interaction between cultures promotes cultural exchange, leading to enrichment through the adoption of practices, ideas, and beliefs from other societies.

Examples of Culture and Traditions

• Festivals and Celebrations: Cultural festivals, such as Chinese New Year, Diwali, Thanksgiving, or Carnaval, showcase the unique traditions and customs of different cultures.
• Language and Communication: Language is a fundamental aspect of culture, with diverse languages reflecting the cultural diversity of the world.
• Marriage and Wedding Customs: Wedding rituals and customs differ widely across cultures, representing the cultural significance of union and family.
• Art and Music: Artistic expressions, such as painting, music, dance, and literature, are integral to cultural identity, reflecting unique aesthetic sensibilities and narratives.

In Conclusion, Culture and traditions are the foundation upon which societies are built, shaping human interactions, behaviors, and collective identities. In a sociological context, understanding culture provides valuable insights into the complexities of human societies, enabling researchers to explore the dynamics of social structures, power dynamics, and intercultural relations.Traditions, as an integral part of culture, preserve the wisdom and practices of past generations, connecting us to our roots and providing a sense of continuity. Embracing cultural diversity and respecting different traditions fosters intercultural understanding, tolerance, and empathy, creating a more inclusive and harmonious world. In our rapidly globalizing world, cultural preservation and celebration are vital for safeguarding the diverse tapestry of human heritage. By recognizing the value of culture and traditions, we not only honor our shared humanity but also pave the way for a more interconnected and enriched global community.

By Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Culture and Traditions appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Dynamics of Cultural Appropriation: Navigating Respect, Appreciation, and Power Dynamics

In an increasingly interconnected world, the exchange and diffusion of cultural practices and elements have become more prevalent. However, this cultural exchange can sometimes lead to a phenomenon known as cultural appropriation. Cultural appropriation occurs when elements of one culture are adopted, often by a dominant culture, without proper understanding, respect, or acknowledgment of their significance. This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of cultural appropriation, exploring its complexities, implications, and the ongoing discourse surrounding this phenomenon.

Defining Cultural Appropriation: Cultural appropriation refers to the adoption, borrowing, or utilization of cultural elements, symbols, practices, or aesthetics from another culture, typically by a dominant culture, without proper understanding, permission, or respect for their cultural context. It involves taking elements out of their original cultural context, often resulting in the commodification or trivialization of those elements.

Appreciation vs. Appropriation: Distinguishing between cultural appreciation and cultural appropriation is crucial to understanding the dynamics at play. Cultural appreciation involves respectfully engaging with and learning about different cultures, recognizing their contributions and significance. Appreciation acknowledges the cultural origins, values, and meanings associated with specific practices, symbols, or artifacts. On the other hand, cultural appropriation occurs when cultural elements are taken without appropriate understanding, commodified, or used inappropriately, often reinforcing stereotypes and perpetuating power imbalances.

Power Dynamics and Cultural Appropriation: Cultural appropriation is closely tied to power dynamics and historical contexts. It often occurs when elements of marginalized or oppressed cultures are appropriated by dominant cultures, reinforcing existing power imbalances. The dominant culture may commodify, profit from, or selectively adopt elements of another culture while simultaneously marginalizing or discriminating against the people who originated those cultural practices. This dynamic perpetuates cultural inequality and can be seen as a form of cultural exploitation.

Impact and Controversies: Cultural appropriation has significant social and psychological impacts. It can lead to the erasure of cultural origins, reinforce stereotypes, and trivialize the struggles faced by marginalized communities. Cultural appropriation can also contribute to the loss of cultural identity, dilution of traditions, and a sense of cultural disconnection for affected communities. Controversies often arise when cultural elements, such as fashion, music, hairstyles, or religious symbols, are adopted without proper understanding or sensitivity, leading to justified criticism and debates.

Intent vs. Impact: When discussing cultural appropriation, it is essential to consider the difference between intent and impact. While an individual may not intend to cause harm or offense, the impact of cultural appropriation can still be deeply hurtful to marginalized communities. Intentions alone do not absolve the potential harm caused. It is crucial to listen to and respect the voices and perspectives of those whose cultures are being appropriated, acknowledging and learning from their experiences and concerns.

Cultivating Cultural Respect and Exchange: Promoting cultural respect and understanding is essential in addressing cultural appropriation. Encouraging open dialogue, education, and cross-cultural exchange based on mutual respect and consent can foster a more inclusive and equitable environment. Recognizing and giving credit to the cultural origins of adopted elements, supporting artists and creators from marginalized communities, and engaging in respectful collaborations are steps toward a more ethical cultural exchange.

Conclusion:

Cultural appropriation is a complex and sensitive topic that requires nuanced understanding and thoughtful engagement. Recognizing the power dynamics, historical contexts, and impact on marginalized communities is crucial in navigating the boundaries between appreciation and appropriation. By promoting cultural respect, understanding, and equitable exchange, we can strive for a more inclusive society that values and uplifts the diverse cultural contributions that shape our world.

By Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Dynamics of Cultural Appropriation appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Culture Is a Learned Behavior

Culture is not an instinctive behavior but a learned behavior. Instinctive or innate refers to those behaviors which are not learned through experience and observation rather, these are biologically inherited for instance, primitive reflexes of a new born including, rooting and suckling are instinctive behaviors. Whereas, individuals learn their respective culture in a given society through the process of socialization. An individual interact with different people in different social groups throughout his course of life whereby, he learns through his social encounters, how to behave in different social situations as well as, to conduct his social relationships with others within different social institutions or groups.

Nevertheless, the most basic and major element of a culture is language through which members of a given society are able communicate with one another. Children learn language of their respective culture or mother tongue through frequent interaction with family members. In the primary stage of socialization process family members directly or indirectly teach the words and sentences of a given language to a new born, in order to make him or her able to communicate with other members of society. An individual who is born and raised in Pakistani Pashtun family will not obtain the knowledge of Mandarin until and unless the members of his family have acquired the knowledge of and communicate in mandarin. Similarly, a child born and raised in Chinese family will certainly learn and speak mandarin rather than Pashto.

Moreover, norms, values and beliefs are the other intertwined elements of culture on the basis of which individuals of a particular society differentiate and label different social behaviors as good or bad —- ethical or unethical —-moral or immoral — virtuous or vicious. Each society has distinct culture because of variation in their major elements. However, one must wonder, why a particular conduct is considered moral by the members of one society but immoral by the members of another? Because members of every society learn the elements of their respective culture via the process of socialization thus, they define each and every social phenomenon in accordance with their adhered cultural values, norms and beliefs for instance, majority of Indians are the adherent Hinduism. Therefore, the dominant culture of India is based on Hindu religious beliefs. According to the Hindu Holy Scripture “Gita” cow is a sacred animal and holds the status of mother. For the reason that, for Hindu Indians slaughtering a cow is an immoral social conduct. Whereas, in Muslim countries such as, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia slaughtering a cow is not prohibited and is not categorized as an immoral behavior by the inhabitants. Since, the dominant culture of these countries are based on Islamic beliefs, which grant permission to slaughter a cow and use the meat to gratify hunger need.

Furthermore, it is not necessary that people would always learn their own cultural norms and values. However, they could adopt the norms and values of foreign culture. The learning process of a culture depends on the frequency of interaction. Therefore, individuals are most likely to learn and adopt the culture of a social group in which they socialize the most for instance, if a new born Catholic English baby is adopted by and raised in Pakistani Muslim family, he will most probably learn Pakistani culture and adhere religion of Islam rather than English culture and Christianity.

Additionally, culture could be learned through various sources such as, institution of family, education, religion, peer group, social media, electronic media, print media etc.… one or few among all socializing agents may play greater role in the process of learning culture for instance, an individual born and raised within a family of criminal may learn criminal culture or deviant behavior and could lead a life of a convict. In contrast, he might also learn and adopt normative or moral socio-culture within educational institutions because of which he could become a productive member of society and lead a respectable social life. Hence, it can be said that some agents of socialization have more influence than others on individuals learning of culture. Moreover, it suggests that culture is not biologically inherited but learned through experiencing various social encounters.

Culture Is Abstract

Culture does not have physical existence but is the amalgamation of thoughts and ideas about the ways of life that are collective shared by individuals of a particular society. However, the existence and visibility of a given society culture is reflected via the habits of its members. Habits refer to those behaviors which are frequently repeated by individuals in different social situations. The foundation of these repeated social conducts rest upon individuals shared ideas and thoughts concerning the way of life. The way how individuals frequently act while greeting one another is one among many habits that ensure the visibility of a culture for instance, People may greet one another by, a kiss on cheeks — kissing each other hands or merely shaking hands. The repeated pattern of such behaviors define the collectively cherished way of life of a particular society.

Culture Is Shared

In accordance with sociological context culture is the thoughts and ideas about the way of life that is shared by the members of a given society. The existence and development of a particular culture depend on the collectively cherished ideas and thoughts about social life. Respective culture of each society differ from one another due to the variance in shared values. These variances exit because people in different societies cherish different things or ideas. In one society people may value wealth and material whereas, in other people may cherish religious thoughts about social life. However, in both cases culture is shared by the members of each society.

Culture Is Transmissive

One among the many major characteristic of culture is the ability of diffusion from one generation to the next. The culture of a given group or society could be passed on to the new inducted members directly or indirectly. However, institution of family play an important role in transmission of culture. Parents teach language to their children through which they acquire the ability to communicate with the other members of society. Language is the basic and only mean to understand and teach cultural trait. Absent the knowledge of native language new members would lack the capacity to learn a given culture. Socialization is not only the process of learning but also the process of teaching or transmitting culture. Whereby, senior members teach and new members learn culture of particular society. Furthermore, social interaction is the major and mandatory component of in this process that aid individuals to pass on and absorb respective socio culture.

During the long journey of life an individual socialize in different social groups and interact with different people that makes him or her capable, to transmit and learn given cultural norms, values and beliefs. New members obtain the knowledge of societal culture via experiencing numerous social encounters in different social groups. However, after obtaining cultural knowledge through social experiences they become senior members who pass on or infuse their acquired knowledge to the new inductees via social interaction. The learners of one generation become the teachers of new or next generation.

Nevertheless, it is not important that the individuals transfer the exact cultural knowledge to the next generation. They may add some new ideas which could be related with the occurrence of social change. As society is not static but dynamic in nature. Each society evolve with the passage of time due to the change in social conditions. It becomes mandatory for the members to establish new or modify the old norms to function in the new social environment. These new norms, values along with old ones are transmitted to the next generation in order to make them productive members of society. Individuals cannot function and survive in modern industrial or IT society if they learn and follow the culture of agriculture society. As individuals are required to acquire different skill set and knowledge to function in modern societies compare to traditional agriculture society. In traditional society father was supposed to teach his son, how to ride horse or bull cart because these were the only available and efficient source of transportation at the time. Whereas, in industrial society father is supposed to teach his son how to drive a car or other mechanical vehicles because these are the available and productive source of transportation within modern society, the given example proposes that teaching or acquiring traditional social skills and knowledge is futile for individuals to operate and function within modern society.

As stated above, language plays crucial role in the process of culture transmission. Language has two different forms including, written and spoken. In either form language acquire the capability to communicate or convey ideas and thoughts. Therefore, physical and face to face interaction is not necessary and the only source for inculcating culture to the new members of society. Books, magazine, newspapers, blogs, research papers, television etc… are the agents which could diffuse culture by mean of written and spoken form of language without physical or face to face social interaction.

The advancement in technology has transformed the world into a global village. In this modern era, people can easily have access to and contact with cultures of entire globe, which could result in transmission of foreign cultures to the new generation. Such exposure and exchange of culture can further bring about social change because frequent contact with foreign culture through electronic and social media may influence individuals to adopt foreign cultural elements. On the other hand, such contact could also lead to the feeling of resentment and hatred towards other foreign cultures due to dissimilar and conflicting cultural norms, values and beliefs.

Culture Differ From Society To Society

Each society has its own culture which differ from the cultures of other societies. The uniqueness and distinction among cultures of various societies is due to the difference in mutually cherished ideas and habits that build the structure or foundation of cultures. A society culture could be based on religious — economic or philosophical ideas regarding way of life. Structure of dominant cultures within India and Pakistan are influenced from distinct religious doctrine therefore, they differ from one another — for instance, polygamy is prohibited in accordance with Hinduism, therefore one man can take only one women as a wife within Indian society. However, one man can marry four women at a time within Pakistan because Islam allows polygamy type of marriage.

Culture Is Dynamic

Culture is not static but dynamic or in ever changing state. Cultural change refer to the alteration — modification or transformation in thoughts, ideas, philosophy, traditions, customs, rituals, institutional structure, norms and values of a certain society. Every new generation come up with new ideas regarding ways of life which is amalgamated or replaced with old ones. This change take place because some of traditional cultural ideas become dysfunctional in new social setting hence they are supplanted with new functional ideas. If these specific dysfunctional cultural elements or parts of cultural elements are not modified and replaced with new operational ones the given society would not acquire the ability to make any progress and keep up or compete with other modern societies.

Moreover, one among many reason behind the phenomenon of cultural change is innovative scientific ideas. Every scientific discovery or invention is based on innovative scientific ideas offered by the intellectuals of different generations. Furthermore, these scientific inventions in could be characterized as the prime cause of change in material culture that further influence and compel the phenomenon of change in non-material culture for instance, prior to the scientific discoveries such as, electricity, telephone, cars, computers, internet etc…. individuals social life was regulated by traditional . Traditional societies had distinct ways for gratifying various felt needs of individuals compare to modern societies. As, in traditional society the modes of correspondence among individuals were exchange of letters or face to face verbal communication. However, scientific discoveries such as, telephone, computers, internet, social media etc… changed the ways of correspondence in different space and time. These discoveries not only introduced the new but productive means for satisfying human needs that resulted in progressive social change. The ways of correspondence in traditional societies was very time consuming among individuals who resided faraway from one another because communication was carried out via letters or personal visits which would took days or months at the time. However, thanks to the technological advancement that changed the traditional ways of life. Now, individuals are able to frequently communicate with one another in time efficient manner either the distance between them is long or short.

Moreover, the relationship among material and non-material culture is vital for analyzing dynamic trait of culture. As the relationship of change between material and non-material culture defines the nature of change. The nature of cultural change could be progressive or regressive. Furthermore, the nature of social change is based on the variance of change between these two types of culture. The positive relationship of change may lead to progressive social change whereas, non-existent relationship may create social instability. In other words, if material and non-material culture change is parallel and in accordance with one another than the nature of social change would be progressive. On the other hand if change in one does not bring change in other accordingly, it may lead to social unrest.

When change occur in material culture but non material culture remains same it leads to cultural lag. Balance between both cultures is necessary for stable social environment. The phenomenon of cultural lag create disorder in a particular society. Individuals can benefit from the availability and functional use of smartphones or computers which might bring about progressive social change on the other hand, misuse of these could prove to be harmful and may impede social progress. The positive or negative use of these advanced technological materials completely depend on non-material culture. As non-material culture includes established rules and procedures that regulate individuals behavior within a society. The occurrence of change in material culture can only prove to be productive or progressive if supported by relevant cultural norms.

Change in material culture such as advent of television, computers, smartphones and other technological advancement could improve the social lives of individuals in that case if non-material culture is changed — molded or modified in accordance with change in material culture. Entire structure of society should be based on norms that advocate positive and productive use of these technology. In this scenario students will learn how to use mentioned technologies for educational purposes within institution of education which will give birth to a generation of young intellectuals. Similarly, relevant change in non-material culture will promote the functional use of these new technologies among businessman, entrepreneurs, politicians, teachers etc.… in their respective fields. Such development will foster the productivity of different social institutions which together will contribute in the smooth functioning and progress of society.

In contrast if nonmaterial culture does not change in accordance with given technological change, it would obstruct the productivity of social institutions as well as the smooth functioning and progress of society. In given scenario young individuals may use computers and smartphones for sexting or playing games rather than for obtaining information or education. Such ill use will result in violation of social norms and values, which may ignite the feeling of resentment towards technological change among senior members of society. Such resistance towards technological change slow down the progress of given society. As technology increase the productivity of social institutions and leads to progressive social change.

Culture Is Social

Culture is not limited to an individual but is communal. The formation of a particular culture could be inspired from the ideas or thoughts of an individual or individuals however, mutually adhered by the members of given society. The source of ideas concerning ways of living could be — religion, philosophy, charisma or amalgamation of all, in any case it cannot exist in isolation. Whether the structure of given culture is based on the collection of ideas from a single source or multiple sources but then again, is collectively cherished and followed by individuals of a particular society. Culture is being characterized as social because its origination is associated with human social interactions additionally, social encounters and relationships among individuals are regulated and guided by the relative cultural norms, values and beliefs of a certain social group.

Moreover, frequent social interaction among individuals based on collection of different thoughts regarding ways of life give birth to a culture of assumed society. The formation or creation of culture in any social group depend on the repetition of certain behaviors through which individuals maintain or sustain different social relationships with one another. As, frequent recurrence of given behaviors create and become common habits among individuals. Furthermore, these common habits among individuals together frame the structure of particular culture or make it whole. According to the above explanation regarding origination process and structural composition, culture can be characterized as social.

Culture Fulfills Various Felt Need

In order to survive individuals, have to satisfy their various felt need within a society. Whereby, mutual cooperation is necessarily required to accomplish the objective of gratifying various felt needs of individuals that are important for their survival. However, culture work as force that ensures the cooperation among individuals within a particular society. Culture ascertains cooperation among individuals because its structure is composed those ideas regarding social conducts or ways of doing things which are mutually cherished by individuals within a particular society.

Culture Is Criterion for Human Social Behavior

Culture is regarded as the criterion for human social behavior because it regulates behavior of individuals in varied social situations via behavioral classification. Culture characterized Behaviors as good or bad — moral or immoral — virtuous or vicious in accordance with shared habits — values and norms on which the foundation of each culture rest upon. Given classification guide individuals to differentiate between acceptable or unacceptable social conducts.

Culture is Accumulative

Culture is not established or come into existence in one day — month or year. As the structure of culture is built upon different ideas which are gradually accumulated over centuries. These ideas gradually store up and form the major components of culture such as, traditions, moral values, norms, beliefs etc.… whereby, given major parts or components together form and define the structure of a particular culture.

Written By: Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Characteristics of Culture appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Subcultures can be defined as, existence of diverse cultures within a larger or, dominant culture. Societies are not completely homogeneous. Generally, Heterogeneous segments or groups coexist within a society, which share distinctive customs and values. These smaller segments conform to the norms and values of dominant or, larger culture. Though, they maintain their own cultural values, norms and traditions as well; which differs from the customs of larger or dominant culture of society. Subcultures are formed on the basis of, mutual historic region, language, religion, and traits.

Ethnic and racial groups are established by the members on account of shared language, attire, heritage and food. For instance, United States is composed of diverse ethnic and racial groups including, African Americans, American Indians, Hispanic Americans etc… These ethnic groups are established, due to common historic region and customs. Hispanic Americans have common traditional cuisines they include, pupusas, tamales, tacos etc… Besides, they have historical link to, “South America” and “Spanish language”. In the same way, American Indians share common historic region; which can be traced back to America or, Alaska.

Whereas, “religious organizations and interest groups” are created on the basis of, common beliefs. Former is the house of worship for the adherent of specific faiths or religion. Later is amalgamation of groups, representing adherents of specific beliefs or religious institution. Religious interest group objective is to protect religious beliefs and values, by shaping state laws or federal legislature. For instance, four different religious system or, belief coexist in Pakistan; among these are, Islam (96.03%), Hinduism (1.85%), Christianity (1.59%) and Ahmadi (0.22%). Followers of each religion has different faiths, beliefs and values. Muslims worship Allah, in “Mosque” whereas, Hindus worship their deities, in “Hindu temple” or, “Mandir”. Furthermore, Christians praise God, in “Church” while, Ahmadi place of worship is “Ahmadi mosque”. For these reasons, various subcultures are shaped and coexist in Pakistani society. Ahamadi and Sunni faiths differ from one another. Sunni sect believe that, “Muhammad” was the last prophet. Whereas, Ahamadis believe that, prophethood still continues in Islam, and “Mirza Ghulam Ahmad” is the prophet who is supposed to come. For the protection of Sunni beliefs and values, religious interest groups (“Majlis-e-Ahrar-e-Islam” and “Jamaat-e-Islami”) architected a movement against Ahamadis. Which claimed that, Ahamadis should be declared as Non-Muslims in Pakistan law. The law was passed in 1974 which redefine status of Ahamadis as, Non-Muslims.

Moreover, other subcultures are shaped by group members on the basis of, shared traits and experiences. Greek life traditions involved housing fraternities and/or sororities is the best example of subcultures based on traits and experiences. Students whose lifestyles are in accordance with any specific sorority, can join the fraternity house. To evaluate students’ eligibility for joining the housing facility, senior members ask the applicants to demonstrate their habits, fashion style and studying habits. Upon fulfilling the criteria, only then they can join the specific sorority. Moreover, in America biker groups are formed due to members’ mutual interest in bikes or, they may share some other interests like tattoos, leather jackets etc…

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Subcultures appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Social Norms refer to established rules of conduct maintained by a society. That specify how individuals should behave and should not behave within a given society. Groups or societies establish norms on the basis of shared values. Values are social conduct or, things mutually cherished by the members of a group or, society. Social norms protect and support collectively cherished social values. For instance, every society values good health. Children are socialized to accept this value in very young age. Parents ask children to brush before breakfast and going to bed at night. Children are taught to wash their hands before having meal and eat healthy food. Because hygiene and a balanced diet are necessary for sustaining good health. Therefore, parents establish these norms to keep their children healthy. Moreover, children are taught to obey and respect elders, not to lie or engage in fights. Rules for conduct are established; to encourage appropriate behavior and discourage inappropriate behavior, within a society or, group.

Social organizations have been established to fulfill certain needs of society. Each social group or, society has its own code of conduct. Which regulates behavior of individuals in social organizations. Norms control and direct Individuals behavior to attain societal objective. Furthermore, Individuals hold different statuses within social organizations. Statuses have been associated with varied responsibilities. Norms specify, responsibilities of group members, in accordance with their statuses. Which guide individuals; how to act and interact within a given social institution. For instance, the prime objective of military is to protect their country, from foreign aggression. Army has strict norm for subordination; soldiers have to obey every command of their superior officers. If soldiers do not follow orders of their superiors, in time of war; country would most certainly fall in to the hands of foreign aggressors. Besides, Institution of army will fail to achieve its objective. For that reason, norms are essential for survival of social organizations. Social systems and organizations could not function smoothly without norms.

Sociologists have categorized norms in to two types; “Formal norms” and “Informal norms”.

Formal Norms

Formal norms refer to, written rules of conduct maintained by a society. These are written rules for those behaviors; which are collectively valued within a society. They serve most of the people in a group or, society. State laws are formal norms; which are established in accordance to the social beliefs and values. Beliefs and values are intertwined with one another. In a country where shared religion is most valued, state laws will reflect religious teachings. Some Muslim countries have strict norms to respect sacred things and beliefs. If someone violates those norms he/she could be severely punished by state regulatory authorities.

For instance, blasphemy is punishable by death in Pakistan. In 2010, Asia BiBi a Pakistani Christian woman was accused of blasphemy. Lahore high Court passed ruling, to hang Asia BiBi till death. Governor of Punjab “Salman Taseer” and minister of minorities “Shahbaz Batti”; who opposed the judgment were killed, by fundamentalists. However, she was released after 9 years by Pakistan Supreme Court in, October 2018, due to lack of evidence. But, riots broke out in every part of the country against Supreme Court verdict. People demanded, that Supreme Court should take its verdict back and hang Asia BiBi.  Those individuals who violate formal norms in a given society, face negative repercussions.

On the other hand, capitalist countries value trade and commerce. In America wealth is collectively cherished value. Therefore, America has written norms to protect businesses and valuable assets of people. Moreover, human life is considered valuable universally. Each country has established strict laws, to protect citizen lives. Murderers are punished severely in every country. Furthermore, each social institution has written laws or, rules; whether, it is recreational or, educational. Sports, schools, colleges, universities, companies and political organizations have its own established written rules of conduct. Written rules of conduct of a given institution, regulate and direct individuals’ behavior to fulfill its mission.

Informal Norms

Informal norms are conformed casual behaviors; they are understood but, not recorded. People learn informal norms via, socialization. When an individual interact within a society; he learns how to behave in different situations. Informal norms are learned through, observation and imitation. Whereas, some informal norms are taught directly to children by parents or, family members like, greeting guests — respecting elders — avoiding abusive language. For example, we don’t sit at a table with strangers in restaurant, as well as, we do not barge in the line to order our food. We know that sitting at a table with strangers is not a normative behavior as well as, barging in the line. We wait until table is available and we stand behind the last person in line, to order our food. Moreover, punishments or, rewards are not specified for conforming or, violating informal norms. For instance, if a student wears clown costume in college, people might stare or laugh at him but he will not be punished for violating informal norms.
Sociologists have further classified norms based on their comparative importance in society. The two further categorized norms are known as “Mores” and “Folkways”.

Mores

Mores are considered essential and imperative for the welfare of society. Principles and behaviors which are most cherished by people is known as mores. Mores are protected by formal norms and sanctions. Violations of mores can lead to serious consequences. Some societies deem religion more important than trade and commerce. In such societies religion is protected by state laws. Blasphemous behavior can lead to severe punishment. However, in countries where trade and commerce is considered important. People businesses, valuable assets and properties are protected by state laws. Vandalizing property and hindering commercial activities could have serious consequences. Some principles and moralities are universally cherished. Murder, theft and child abuse are deemed immoral behavior in every society. Therefore, mentioned immoral behavior are punishable by state laws. Those individuals who violate mores could be also punished via, informal sanctions. Group members could shun and banish perpetrators from social group.

Folkways

Folkways regulate everyday behavior of individuals. Folkways are morally approved day to day behavior of individuals in a given culture. Each culture has its own folkways which indicate; how to greet friends, guests and family members, what to wear on different occasions, and how to behave with elders, children, teachers and friends. When Greeks meet their friends they hug and kiss one another. Whereas, American just shake hand and maintain their distance. Moreover, in Pakistan men wear “Kurta Shalwar” on Eid ul aza and Eid ul fitar. Whereas, Arab men wear “Thobe” on Eid days. Because traditions vary from society to society. In western countries women can smile and say hello to their stranger counterparts. But in Middle Eastern countries it is not morally approved behavior. Folkways are not formalized like mores, they are not protected by state laws. Therefore, Violating folkways are not punishable by state laws.

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

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Values can be defined as, cultural criterion to differentiate between, good or, bad—moral or, immoral and desirable or undesirable. Things (ideas, objective and behavior) which are most cherished, by individuals within a given society, is called values. Values specify people preferences in a given culture regarding, goals, actions and ideas. They hold shared conception of, what is significant or, insignificant—morally right or, wrong also, what is considered desirable and proper or, bad.

Moreover, Cultural values are intertwined with beliefs. Beliefs are articles of faith, which individuals in a given culture hold to be true. Generally, beliefs are learned and instilled in Individuals through religion. For instance, cow is considered sacred in Hindu religion. Adherents of Hindu religion believe that, cow is like mother, and should be treated like mother. Therefore, slaughtering a cow is prohibited in India. On the other hand, Muslims like to eat cow meat thus, slaughtering cows are not prohibited in Muslim countries. Hence, values vary from society to society. But, values of every society are not necessarily based on religion. For instance, Americans collectively believe in American dream; which means, anyone can become wealthy and successful if, work hard and strives to attain his goal. Wealth is considered important by Americans. For that reason, being wealthy is American social value.

Furthermore, individuals may have personal values, it could be success in education or, success in business or, fitness. On the other hand, social values are collectively shared ideas by the members of a given culture. An individual cannot hold values, which could be in conflict with social values. If, personal values come in conflict with cultural values, “Negative sanctions” (punishment) would be imposed on individuals. For instance, institution of marriage is the most cherished value in Muslim countries. It has written norms for value protection as well as, strict sanctions to prohibit adultery. If an individual commit adultery in Muslim country, he would be severely punished. Therefore, inhabitants of such society may not value premarital sex, to avoid consequences (negative sanctions).

Values are social canons of behavior; for individuals with in a society. It suggests how individuals should behave in a given culture. But, individuals’ do not behave exactly according to cultural values. Sometimes matching up to cultural values may be difficult for individuals. For instance, People generally value good health but, it is difficult for them to quit, smoking and drinking. Monogamy is valued in many cultures yet, spouses engage in infidelity. Equal rights and opportunities are universally cherished but, gender, race and cast discrimination still exists in many societies. Social values represent “Ideal culture” behavioral standards of society; which people would like to follow and measure up to. On the other hand, “Real culture” represents people actual, behavior and way of life in a society. If people live up to ideal culture; there would be no crimes and chaos in the world. In reality many people do not always conform to social values. Which may result in crimes, war and injustice. Therefore, International organizations, welfare organizations, law enforcement agencies, and governments have been established to prevent social problems like poverty, wars, crimes and injustice.

Written by; Khushdil Khan kasi

The post Social Values appeared first on Sociology Learners.

Societies are not completely homogeneous, generally, Heterogeneous groups coexist within a single society. These groups have different cultures which are called subcultures. Each sub-group cultural background is the combination of different influences. It could be formed on the basis of, ethnicity, religious believes, philosophical ideologies, social classes, sects, gender, race etc… for instance, United States is composed of diverse ethnic groups, racial groups, religious groups, sects and social classes including, African Americans, American Indians, Hispanic Americans, Christianity, Islam, Catholics, protestants, business class, working class etc… Similarly, Pakistan is composed of diverse ethnic groups, religious groups, sects and social classes these include, Punjabi, Pashtun, Sindhi, Saraiki, Muhajir, Baloch, Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Ahmadi, Shiites, Sunnis etc… When too many cultures coexist in a single society, conflict is inevitable between dominant and subcultures. Due to the conflict sub groups oppose or reject some of the norms of mainstream culture; which is regarded as countercultures.

Countercultures could be established on the basis of philosophical ideologies, which may give rise to social movements within a given society. “Philosophical ideology” refers to, political and cultural beliefs of an individual or group. Whereas, “Social movement” is the grouping of people for a particular social or political cause. Moreover, sometimes countercultures can become major threat to mainstream culture or, they may overtake the mainstream culture and become the norm. For instance, Karl Marx, philosophy of classless society and equality tempted many groups and individuals all over the world. Which further resulted in many social movements in different countries. Karl Marx, economic, political and social ideology was against the norms of mainstream cultures of many societies at that time. Communist Party of Cuba (Partido Comunista de Cuba party) headed by Fidel Castro was established on the basis of Karl Marx philosophy. This organization worked against the norms of contemporary mainstream culture of Cuba at that time. However, the movement led by Fidel Castro through communist party resulted in, establishment of communist state. At that time Cuba was a democratic state but, from time to time, it was regulated by military junta or non-elected government.

Countercultures which are based on religious beliefs often come in conflict with dominant culture. Behaviors which are considered deviant in dominant culture could be normative in accordance to sub-groups adhered religious faith. For instance, Islamic religious groups are subcultures of America and India. In both countries Polygyny is considered deviant behavior and is punishable by law. Whereas, Polygyny is legal and considered normative behavior in Islam. Muslims religious beliefs comes in conflict with dominant culture of both countries. Therefore, Religious groups based on Islam could be regarded as countercultures in America and India. Furthermore, countercultures could be established on the basis of sex and race. Civil rights and feminist movements in America are the best example of countercultures based on race and sex.

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

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The globalization strategy has been spread in the world with unprecedented pace. Governments have promoted globalization via fiscal policies and trade agreements (Such as NAFTA). Moreover, technology has also played its part in promoting globalization. People are more aware of economic trends and investment opportunities than before, because of information technology. Thanks to IT now transfer of financial assets between two counties are simplified and quick. Because of Globalization the operating cost of the conglomerate have reduced by hiring cheap labor in developing counties and easy access to raw material. Furthermore, cross border trade, communication channels have improved between the countries over the years, which have lowered the transportation cost.

Pros and Cons of Globalization

Globalization was a strategy pitched for the betterment of living standards of people in developed and developing countries of the world. In other words, the strategy was designed for the betterment of whole world. Globalization provides job opportunities in developing countries, multinational corporations invest in developing countries and provide different job opportunities to inhabitants. Job opportunities change the living standard of inhabitants, they can afford to buy different products from the market, dine in restaurants and can fulfill their basic needs. Furthermore, it also benefits the state economy, companies pay taxes to government which helps to increase GDP. On the other hand, it may have had negative impact on the lives of the people living in developed countries. Particularly, Blue collar job holders suffered in developed countries because most of the conglomerates have shifted their manufacturing units in developing countries, because of cheap labor. Due to which, many people have lost their jobs or possible job opportunities in developed countries. Whereas, many people also have benefited from globalization in developed countries because now they can buy cheap products which is made in developing countries thousand miles away.      

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